Financial Crisis During The Great Depression - 1847 Words

Chapter 1: Introduction It is clear that the most popular terms, which could be seen on media including the Internet, newspaper on the late of 2000s, are Global Financial Crisis (GFC), credit crunch, sub-prime crisis or bankruptcy. The financial crisis, started in the late of 2007 in the USA and quickly become international phenomenon, is seen to be the worst crisis since the Great Depression, 1929-1933 (Hull, 2012). GFC was a steel punch, which has probably destroyed the biggest and unbreakable economy in the world, the USA. It seems that the idiom â€Å"Too big to fail† may not true in all circumstances. There were some big financial institutions receiving bailout from the government and some announced go bankrupt such as 160-year-old bank and the forth-largest bank before the crisis, Lehman Bothers Bank . There were a lot of researches, books and journals discussing and debating every perspective the turmoil including causes, determinants and consequences. Further more, there were some researches of Lynch (2010:13) stated that, in 2007, while the world was being experienced so-called ‘the worst crisis’ in history, Canada appeared to be one outside of that crisis though the unemployment rate was increased (in Walks, 2014:256). Financial crisis in general here Chapter 2: Litterateur review For the purpose of this dissertation, I review the piece of researches discussing and examining the impact of securitization to subprime mortgage and broadly to financial crisis. Besides,Show MoreRelatedFinancial Crisis During The Great Depression1203 Words   |  5 PagesNow these financial markets have allowed many to become successful and live the â€Å"American Dream,† but have also caused many to suffer and lose everything. Back in 2007, the United States’ economy experienced a large financial crisis that almost paralleled the financial crisis during the Great Depression. Large financial institutions suffered a great deal and the stock market plummeted worldwide. The housing market took a huge hit as well, causing many foreclosures and evictions. This crisis stemmedRead MoreThe Global Financial Crisis During The Great Depression Of The 1930s1103 Words   |  5 PagesGLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS† A financial crisis is a situation in which the value of financial institutions or assets drops rapidly. A financial crisis is often associated with a panic or a run on the banks, in which investors sell off assets or withdraw money from savings accounts with the expectation that the value of those assets will drop if they remain at a financial institution. Contents: ïÆ' ¼ Introduction ïÆ' ¼ Causes of the Crisis ïÆ' ¼ Impact of financial crisis ïÆ' ¼ Solution of financial crisisRead MoreEconomic Growth During The Great Depression And The Recent Financial Crisis1562 Words   |  7 PagesThe government has been implementing policies in the improvement of the growth in the UK. Such as improving economic growth during the Great Depression and the recent financial crisis. A brief history by (Pettinger, 2016) on the use of fiscal policy, Keynes promoted the use of fiscal policy as a way of boosting growth. Moreover, during 1970-1980s the government switched to using monetary policy in influencing the economy. However, the government later reverted to using the fiscal policy in the recessionRead MoreHistory Of The Financial Crisis During The Great Depression Of The 1930 S1823 Words   |  8 PagesOF THE FINANCIAL CRISIS There have been many accounts on what the financial crisis was and how it started with different people giving different opinions on what caused the crisis. According to the IMF (international Monterey Fund), it is said to be the worst financial crisis since the Great depression of the 1930’s. The first claims that the chief root was government involvement in the housing market, this contribution is said to have overvalued a housing bubble and resulted in the crisis. AnotherRead MoreThe Great Depression and Unemployment: Discussion Questions1271 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Principles of Macroeconomics 1 ________________________________________________________________________ Q. 2: The Great Depression The Great Depression started in 1930 and lasted until 1939. It can be regarded as the worst depression the world has ever seen in the history. Spread across various nations, the Great Depression badly hampered each and every aspect of the economic, business, political, and social life. The most affected regions due to this economic slump were North America, EuropeRead MoreThe Great Depression Of The 1930s Essay1689 Words   |  7 PagesGlobal Crisis of 2008 in Comparison to the Great Depression of the 1930s Introduction The economic crisis’ of the 1930s and 2000s greatly impacted the United Sates (U.S) and the world. The Great Depression and Global Crisis were both major economic crisis’s the originated in the United States and spread to foreign markets around the world. The Great Depression is regarded as the biggest economic downturn, due to many factors like the stock market crash. The Global Crisis on the other hand, was aRead MoreKeynesian Theory During The Great Depression949 Words   |  4 PagesSince the establishment of the Keynesian theory during the Great Depression, there was a continuous rivalry between Keynesians and monetarists. The ongoing debate was about which model can most accurately and correctly explain economic instability and which theory provides the best suggestions on how to achieve constant and steady economic growth. There are fundamental differences in these two approaches, for example over the usefulness of government intervention through fiscal policies , monetaryRead MoreThe Great Depression Of The 1930 S1476 Words   |  6 Pagesthe great depression of the 1930’s and the great recession in the United State of America. First, I’ll make a general overview of each of these two different periods and then focus on certain specific aspects during these different times. This will include the causes to the economic recessions witnessed, impacts of the economic recessions and the solutions that were introduced. When talking about any topic regarding American history, it would be hard not to mention the 1930’s great depression. AuthorsRead MoreFinancial Events Of The Great Depression Essay914 Words   |  4 PagesPiecing together the events of the Great Depression is like putting together a jigsaw puzzle. As Ben S. Bernanke expressed, The Depression was an incredibly dramatic episode-an era of stock market crashes, bread lines, bank runs, and wild currency speculation, with the storm clouds of war gathering ominously in the background all the while. Fascinating, and often tragic, characters abound during this period, from hapless policymakers trying to make sense of events for which their experienceRead MoreThe World Experienced A Tremendous Financial Crisis Essay1131 Words   |  5 Pagestremendous financial crisis which rooted from the U.S housing market; moreover, it is considered by many economists as one of the worst recession since the Great Depression in 1930s. After posing a huge effect on the U.S economy, the financial crisis expanded to Europe and the rest of the world. It brought governments down, ruined economies, crumble financial corporations and impoverish individual lives. For example, the financial crisis has resulted in the collapse of massive financial institutions

The Physics Of The Solar Flare - 1757 Words

The solar flare came at a very inopportune time, yet not unexpected considering the sun is currently at the peak of its 11 year sunspot cycle [11]. Somehow the station maintained all power and communications with the U.S., but the X-ray and radio waves from the flare impacted communications with Moscow, where their asteroid detection telescopes are located [11]. This is likely because the ionosphere above Moscow was affected the most by the flare’s x-rays, thereby disturbing its radio communications [11]. It is very hard to prepare for a solar flare though, considering it only takes around 8 minutes for the high energy photons to reach earth, which is why John was not surprised to have been caught unaware [11]. If it had happened at any other time, John wouldn’t have been too worried because the Planetary Defense Coordination Office branch of NASA is able to detect any imminent threats with at least a week or two advanced warning. This is plenty of warning for the high powered laser that obliterates smaller asteroids and alters the course of larger ones; however, the circumstances are different in this case. Just two days prior, John had received a transmission from the Russian base in Moscow that they had detected an incoming asteroid posed to strike Earth, but as they were about to transfer the coordinates of the asteroid to John, the solar flare’s radiation struck the Earth’s ionosphere and cut off the communication with Moscow. This asteroid was what people in John’sShow MoreRelatedAstronomy : The Field Of Study961 Words   |  4 Pageswhat in the solar system, galaxy, and universe (2) †¢ They study the evolution of planets and stars to more understand how our solar system works (2) †¢ Astronomers study physics at work throughout space (2) †¢ Astronomers study other stars and try to see what types of planets are around them (2) †¢ Solar astronomers study our sun to find cycles, holes, and other things that can help us understand the sun (2) †¢ Astronomers figure out the distance between our solar system and other solar systems, betweenRead More The Sun and Its Features Essay967 Words   |  4 Pagessun: sunspots, solar flares, and aurora borealis. At the beginning of the cycle, the magnetic field is weak and there are very few sunspots; later, at the peak of the cycle, the magnetic field is strong, and there are many sunspots. Sunspots are relatively cool areas that appear as dark patches on the face of the sun. They occur where magnetic field lines are twisted below the surface. The period of time when the magnetic field is strong and there are many sunspots is called a solar maximum. The sunRead MoreThe Effect Of Solar Flares On Our Future Essay1529 Words   |  7 Pagesevent that occurs within our solar system is the solar flare. Scientists have spent much time studying this solar phenomenon attempting to learn how to predict them. This in turn has caused a significant increase in understanding the anatomy of solar flares to include the phases of flares and what they emit. Bringing things closer to Earth, the emissions of solar flares can have a significant impact in today’s technological world. By far, the largest impact of solar flares to our technology is radioRead MoreEssay On Parker Space Challenger990 Words   |  4 Pagesseven flybys around Venus, this probe will achieve a speed of about 200 km/s and a distance of 8.5 solar radius from the surface.[1] The main objective of the mission is to expand our understanding of solar corona and solar winds which directly influences the space weather surrounding the Earth. This space weather affects the life and society on Earth and so it is important to understand these solar winds. HISTORY: The Sun has been a measure source of knowledge since the past century. Being the nearestRead MoreThe Science Of The Earth Essay1164 Words   |  5 Pagesapproaches in the science of the planet Earth. This discipline can cope with lithosphere, atmosphere, biosphere or hydrosphere. Quantitative understanding has been developed by the scientists to understand the ground systems with the tools by mathematics, physics, chronology, biology, chemistry alike that help to know how the universe is evolved. Deliberations According to a news release from NASA, coronal mass ejections caused by geomagnetic storms have been enhanced in strength; as from G1 to G5, theyRead MoreSolar Flares and Its Contribution to Global Warming3299 Words   |  13 Pagesï » ¿Abstract This paper talks about the solar flares and how they go on to cause global warming. Global warming has been an ongoing phenomenon and there are many reasons it has occurred. Apart from the green house effect, global warming could have been due to the solar flares that have occurred. Different researches and theories regarding this matter are discussed in the paper. Solar Flare Global warming is a phenomenon that has amazed and frightened everyone ever since it came into being. 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I read the second article that I found under the same keywords. This article was not as helpful as the first article I had read. It was about how scientists were sending out a spacecraft to take pictures of the sun to betterRead MoreEssay on The Great Debate on Global Warming1502 Words   |  7 Pagesgreenhouse effect has many natural causes. Others agree that the cause of the Earth’s increase in temperature is just part of a continuous cycle. These researchers argue that solar activity plays a huge role in the issue of global warming. Therefore, based upon the myth of the greenhouse effect, cyclical patterns, and research on solar activity, global warming is not a man-made dilemma. When greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, similar to the way greenhouse panes trap heat, it is called theRead MoreThe Feasibility of Prolonged Space Travel1363 Words   |  5 Pagesearth’s magnetic field [9]. In a typical spacecraft astronauts can be protected from the radiation caused by solar flares with shields [5]. However, there are other forms of cosmic radiation that cannot be as easily blocked which are caused by particles which are highly charged and high in mass, known as HZE particles [9]. These particles are unlike the hydrogen protons produced in solar flares due to their high energy and can damage the spacecraft and can also harm the astronauts inside, especially

The Ethics of the American Invasion of Iraq Free Essays

The American invasion of Iraq in 2003 is certainly one of the more controversial foreign policy initiatives of the 21st century. The general facts surrounding this event are clear: on the 20th day of May 2003, the United States, with support from Great Britain and a host of other western nations, invaded Iraq in response to intelligence reports of weapons of mass destruction. Up until May 1, 2003, these forces fought to successfully topple the regime of Saddam Hussein and to usher in a new era for the Iraqi people and the Iraqi nation. We will write a custom essay sample on The Ethics of the American Invasion of Iraq or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, these facts were not the main source of tension that this military imperative created; instead, the ethical implications behind the invasion and the debates concerning the reasons for entering the war are what have sparked protest, of which most notably has been the record-breaking anti-war rally in Rome one month before the invasion. Unfortunately the debate is too often discussed in terms of consequences alone. On one side the pro-war supporters have cited the need to protect America from further attacks, to stave off nuclear holocaust and to remove a maniacal dictator from power, while on the other side anti-war protesters have argued that the invasion costs far too many innocent American as well as Iraqi lives. Of course, in our ethical discourse we cannot ignore consequences, but along with consequences we must also consider principles. Therefore, in this essay, I will look at the ethics of the American invasion of Iraq through the lens of Kantian ethics. I will begin with a discussion of Kant’s theory and move from this to argue against the invasion based on Kant’s first maxim of the categorical imperative. Kant’s ethical theory is deontological in that it does not focus primarily on consequences, but first and foremost on principles. These principles he forms from practical human reason and the moral principle that he names the categorical imperative. In its two forms this imperative offers a universal ethic that all rational human beings in all ages and from all cultural backgrounds should be able to recognize. The first maxim deals with the universalizing of human behaviour: â€Å"Act only on that maxim which you can at the same time will to be a universal law† (Kant, [1785] 1948, p. 421). The purpose of this maxim is simple in that it forces the moral agent to take his or her actions as implying a universal code. For example, if a moral agent is considering telling a lie because it will prove beneficial to him or her in that situation, he or she must consider that if all other moral agents told lies in the same situations then any society based on a basic level of trust and truth would inevitably collapse. One person’s ethic universalized would destroy an entire social structure. In other words, Kant challenges the ethical person not to make an exception of him or herself. The second maxim deals with the way in which other human beings are to relate to other human beings. Kant states, â€Å"treat humanity†¦never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an ends† (Kant, [1785] 1948, p. 429). People should always be treated as the final goal of our moral actions and not merely the way in which we realize other personal agendas. Although both of these maxims may lend important ethical insights to a discussion on the invasion in Iraq, the first maxim offers a far more concrete model in which to discuss the invasion and therefore we apply it alone. There are many criticisms against the invasion into Iraq, but I will focus on three specific criticisms: insufficient evidence for the invasion, going beyond the United Nations, and the use of military force over diplomacy. Firstly, as admitted by the C. I. A in 2005 and verified by the invasion itself, the claim that Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction was a weak—or even false—reason for going to war. It seems, therefore, that the U. S. was simply taking far too drastic steps without proper research. If we were to universalize this practice, the world would be faced with a terrible increase in violence and war. Not only would enemies attack one another on good suspicions, but even allies would be lead to attack one another based on the weak suspicion that each country may have bad intentions toward the other. This type of global policy is not acceptable for a single nation, and this is made perfectly clear in the fact that it cannot be responsibly universalized. Secondly, the U. S. went above the recommendations of the U. N. and acted out of line with the U. N. ’s policy. In this respect, according to the definition of Kofi Annan and the U. N. Security Council, the invasion of Iraq was technically illegal. If we again apply Kant’s universalizing maxim to the U. S. ’s behavior we have another strong criticism of the invasion. The U. N. was expressly created by the consent of most of the countries of the world as a sovereign power that would be allowed to resolved global conflict between nations. As Thomas Hobbes points out in his Leviathan, any individual or group that submits to a sovereign has the responsibility to accept the judgments of that power. The U. S. , in its flagrant disregard of the U. N. ’s policy, clearly did not respect the power of the sovereign and in this way set a dangerous precedent for unilateral military action. If the entire world were to universalize this ethic there would remain no authority in the world and all nations would return to the brutal Hobbesian state of nature. Lastly, the U. S. ’s decision to invade made a clear statement that military action is preferable to the diplomatic option. For any civilized society, war must always be the last option, if it is to be used at all. Many supporters of the invasion may claim that the Bush administration had no other option, but it is clear that the administration did not do nearly as much diplomacy as it could have. Other nations should have been included in the process and negotiations should have been more controlled within the influence of the U. N. If we universalize the U. S. ’s action to go to war before pushing for diplomacy, the diplomatic option in the world would collapse. In this sense, there would be little hope of peaceful solutions to inter-national conflicts, but instead a future of pre-empted strikes and quick invasions. If this would indeed become the case, the world would need far more than Kantian ethics to save it from its inevitable decline. References Hobbes, Thomas (2006). Leviathan. New York: Dover Publications, Incorporated. Kant, Immanuel (1948). Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. (H. J. Paton, Trans. ). London: Hutchinson. (Original work published 1785, and published in a collection in 1903; page references to this edition). Kant, Immanuel (1836). The Metaphysics of Ethics. (John William Semple, Trans. ). Edinburgh: Thomas Clark. (Original work published 1785). Paton, Herbert James. (1971). The Categorical Imperative: A Study in Kant’s Moral Philosophy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Ross, Dennis. (2008). Statecraft: And How to Restore America’s Standing in the World. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Steel, Jonathan. (2008). Defeat: Why America and Britain Lost Iraq. Berkeley: Counterpoint. How to cite The Ethics of the American Invasion of Iraq, Papers

Mens Rea In International Criminal Law

Question: Describe about The Concept of Mens Rea In International Criminal Law ? Answer: Introduction Since long, it had been recommended by many leading academicians as well as by lawyers that the existing legislation known as the Non-Fatal Offences against Person, 1861 was something that demanded immediate amendments. This recommendation was based on three main issues. Firstly, the language that is used in the legislation is very complicated, outdated and obscure. Secondly, the structure in which the offences are arranged is very ambiguous. Thirdly, the effectiveness of the piece of legislation was criticized by the Law Commission as well. It was proposed by the Law Commission to repeal Section 18, 20 and 47 of the Act and replace them with new provisions which would be appropriately worded. Discussion The various criticisms of the legislation are being discussed in the following paragraphs. The language that is used in the Legislation is particularly outdated. For instance, there are certain words like malicious and grievous which are not used on a regular basis these days. Hence, these terms require interpretation by the courts on a regular basis. While on one hand, in general terms, the word malicious means something that is related to evil or haughtiness, on the opposite end, the same in legal parlance means having an intention or being reckless. In the matter of DPP v Smith, the term grievous was interpreted as to mean something very serious. There are also other terms like assault that have been found to be very misleading. Ordinarily, to constitute the offence of assault, one generally gets a notion that there has to an image of actual physical attack while under the existing legal system, to constitute the offence of assault, no physical contact is required. Similar ambigui ty is also prevalent as far as the term battery is concerned. Considering the legislative history, it is very ambiguous to believe that the Victorian Draftsmen actually wished to include any psychiatric harm in the definition of the word bodily harm. However, the Courts have included the same in the said category in the matters of R v Ireland, R v Constanza and R v Burstow. There is equal ambiguity in understanding the word inflict. In the matter of R v Clarence, it meant requirement of proof that an assault or battery was actually done. In the matter of R v Wilson, the Court ruled that to satisfy the ingredients of this particular word, force should be applied directly. On the other hand, the same court in the matter of R v Martin ruled that even indirect application of the force would satisfy the section. Let us know have a look at the ambiguous structure of the offences. The offences of assault and battery are not defined coherently and hence, there is no boundary line that would differentiate the two from each other. In Faulkner v Talbot, it was ruled that battery would be said to have done if there is any intentional touching while, ABH would be constituted if the intentional touching would interfere with the comfort of the individual. Apart from the element of comfort there seems to be no difference between these two offences, yet, the punishment prescribed for both of them is miles apart. While battery is punishable with a maximum penalty of 6 months, ABH might be punishable for 5 years. The different jury would interpret ABH and GBH n grossly different terms. There is no boundary to compartmentalize the two. It is beyond doubt that ABH and GBH are offences with different levels of severity in terms of injury. Even then, under Section 20, an offence of GBH has the same level of p enalty as an offence under Section 47, dealing with ABH. There seems to be no validity as to why would the offence of wounding is kept in an entirely different section. The same can be interpreted along the terms of GBH. In the matter of Moriarty v Brookes, it was held by the Court that breaking the seven layers of the skin would be said to constitute the offence of wound. This means that a pin prick would be considered to be a wound and also a head breaking with skin rupture will also be wound. It is dismal to see this situation. Further, as far as the effectiveness of the offences is concerned, there are further criticisms there as well. It is likely that many of the non fatal offences against persons would go unpunished. There are high chances that many of them would not be reported and even if they are reported, they may not be prosecuted. Law Commission Recommendations Keeping these in mind, the Law Commission, published the report titled Legislating the Criminal Code: Offences Against the Person and General Principles. This came in inclusion of a bill that intended to repeal Section 18, 20 and 47 on the grounds that the language was old fashioned, the three sections in question are complicated and have technical errors associated and that in the interpretation of these sections, it is very likely that lawyers would make mistakes and there would be total unintelligibility as far as the common men are concerned. We shall now look into the amendments which the proposed bill intended to provide. The same is being presented in the given tabular form: Present Offences Proposed New Offences Definitions Maximum Penalty S. 18: Wounding or causing Grievous Bodily Hurt with intent A person would remain guilty of an offence under the section if he intentionally causes an injury that is serious to any other person Injury would mean any physical injury or mental injury. Physical injury would mean anything that is caused by disease and would include any pain, unconsciousness or any other impairment of the physical condition of a person. Mental injury would mean anything that causes an impairment of the mental health of a person. Imprisonment for life. S. 20: Wounding or causing Grievous Bodily Hurt A person would remain guilty of an offence under the section if serious injury is caused to another person by his reckless act. Injury would have the same definition as stated above with the only difference that it would not include anything that is caused by diseases. Seven years on condemnation or six months; this may or may not be associated with a fine summarily. S. 47: Assault that results in ABH A person would remain guilty of an offence under this section if an injury is caused to another person either with intent or out of recklessness. Injury would have the same definition as stated above with the only difference that it would not include anything that is caused by diseases. Five years on condemnation or six months; this may or may not be associated with a fine summarily. Common Law Assault and Battery A person remains guilty of an offence under this section if he with intent applies force on another person and he believes that such an impact would be imminent. Generally, the fine amounts to an amount not more than $ 5000 along with imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months. Evaluation The key aspects of the changed reform suggest that the following three should be kept in mind An assault that is inclusive of a battery which results in any harm which happens to be an ABH in contrast to Section 47 should be charged as a common assault in contrast to section 39 of the Criminal Justice Act where injury constitutes nothing more than a graze or a scratch or an abrasion. The offences that would be charged under section 47 are loss or breaking of tooth or teeth, cuts that require stitches, extensive bruises, psychiatric injury going beyond fear, loss of sensory functions etc. Section 20 of the Act should only be kept for those wounds that are at equivalence with GBH. Such offences include permanent disability, visible disfigurement of any organ, broken or misplaced bones and limbs, or any other injury that causes a substantial loss of blood. Conclusion As far as the success of the new provisions is concerned, it appears that the recommendations of the Law Commission have been followed. If the Bill is implemented, it is likely that the ambiguities that were present in the legislation would be mended to a great extent. The Law Commission has recommended these changes that are very vital for the criminal justice system to stand on strong grounds. But at the same time, it also cannot be denied that the scope for improvement still lies. There are certain areas that can be mended again. As for instance, the definition of assault and battery can be brought under one head so that the difference of borderline between the two can be understood. Further, the sections can also be updated as far as parlance with Section 39 of Criminal Justice Act is concerned. This will provide a more coherent criminal law framework. But a reading of the present situation clearly points that the recommended changes are particularly helpful in deciphering the am biguous situation that was present formerly. References Allen, M,Textbook on criminal law. in , Oxford, Oxford university press, 2015. Badar, M,The Concept Of Mens Rea In International Criminal Law. in , Oxford University Press, 2014. DPP v Smith. in , , 1961, p. 290. Dubber, M,Foundational texts in modern criminal law. in , Oxford University Press, 2015. E-lawresources.co.uk, 'Criticisms of non-fatal offences against the person'. in , , 2015, https://e-lawresources.co.uk/Non-Fatal-Offences-Against-the-Person---Criticisms.php [accessed 24 July 2015]. Faulkner v Talbot [1981] 3 All ER 468. in , , 1981, p. 468. HORDER, J, 'Rethinking Non-Fatal Offences against the Person'. inOxford Journal of Legal Studies, 14, 1994, 335-351. Jefferson, M, 'Offences against the Person: Into the 21st Century'. inThe Journal of Criminal Law, 76, 2012, 472-492. Jones-Brown, D, B Frazier, M Brooks,African Americans and criminal justice. in , Oxford University Press, 2014. Kymlicka, W, C Lernestedt, M Matravers,Criminal law and cultural diversity. in , Oxford University Press, 2015. Law, H, 'Offences against the Person: Reckless Transmission of HIV'. inThe Journal of Criminal Law, 69, 2005, 389-393. Lawteacher.net, 'Non Fatal Offences Against The Person | Criminal Lecture Notes | Law Teacher'. in , , 2015, https://www.lawteacher.net/lecture-notes/criminal-law/assaults-lecture.php [accessed 24 July 2015]. Lee, C, Audah Hassan,Offences against persons and property. in , Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia, LexisNexis, 2009. Moriarty v Brookes. in , , 1834, p. 79. R v Burstow. in , , 1997, p. 34. R v Clarence. in , , 1889, , 23. R v Constanza. in , , 1997, p. 576. R v Ireland. in , , 1997, , 534. R v Martin. in , , 1989, , 343. R v Wilson. in , , 1996, p. 573. Virgo, G, 'Offences Against the PersonDo-It-Yourself Law Reform'. inCam. Law. J., 56, 1997, 251. M Allen,Textbook on criminal law, in , Oxford, Oxford university press, 2015. W Kymlicka, C Lernestedt M Matravers,Criminal law and cultural diversity, in , Oxford University Press, 2015. DPP v Smith, inAC, , 1961, p. 290. R v Ireland, inWLR, , 1997, , 534. R v Constanza, inCrim L R, , 1997, p. 576. R v Burstow, inUKHL, , 1997, p. 34. R v Clarence, inQB, , 1889, , 23. R v Wilson, inCrim L R, , 1996, p. 573. R v Martin, inCr App R, , 1989, , 343. D Jones-Brown, B Frazier M Brooks,African Americans and criminal justice, in , Oxford University Press, 2014. Faulkner v Talbot [1981] 3 All ER 468, inAll E R, , 1981, p. 468. M Badar,The concept of Mens Rea in international criminal law, in . Oxford University Press, 2015. C Lee Audah Hassan,Offences against persons and property, in , Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia, LexisNexis, 2009. Moriarty v Brookes, inEWHC Exch J, , 1834, p. 79. Lawteacher.net, 'Non Fatal Offences Against The Person | Criminal Lecture Notes | Law Teacher', in , , 2015, https://www.lawteacher.net/lecture-notes/criminal-law/assaults-lecture.php [accessed 24 July 2015]. G Virgo, 'Offences Against the PersonDo-It-Yourself Law Reform', inCam. Law. J., vol. 56, 1997, 251. H Law, 'Offences against the Person: Reckless Transmission of HIV', inThe Journal of Criminal Law, vol. 69, 2005, 389-393. M Dubber,Foundational texts in modern criminal law, in . Oxford University Press, 2015. E-lawresources.co.uk, 'Criticisms of non-fatal offences against the person', in , , 2015, https://e-lawresources.co.uk/Non-Fatal-Offences-Against-the-Person---Criticisms.php [accessed 24 July 2015]. M Jefferson, 'Offences against the Person: Into the 21st Century', inThe Journal of Criminal Law, vol. 76, 2012, 472-492. J HORDER, 'Rethinking Non-Fatal Offences against the Person', inOxford Journal of Legal Studies, vol. 14, 1994, 335-351.

261 Junot Diaz and Drown Professor Ramos Blog

261 Junot Diaz and Drown Masculinity vs Toxic Masculinity Quick Write You are at your funeral, or the funeral of a man you respect. They say, â€Å"He was a good man.† What does that mean? Write for a couple of minutes on what it means to be a good man. What words come to mind? Masculinity vs Toxic Masculinity What is the difference? Junot Dà ­az (1968) Junot Dà ­az is a Dominican-American writer, creative writing professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and fiction editor at Boston Review. He has won numerous writing awards, including the 2008 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for his novel The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao. Drown (1996)

UAE Islands

UAE Islands Man-made islands in Dubai There are several residential projects that are now being implemented in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. First of all, one should speak about the construction of the Palm Islands and the World Islands in Dubai.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on UAE Islands specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These projects were implemented in order to solve the problem of beach shortage in the city, beginning in 2003 (Badescu Cathcart 2011, p. 66). At that time, the coastline was not sufficient for construction industry. There was virtually no space that could be filled by office buildings, hotels, restaurants, and so forth. These islands are made of the sand that has been dredged from the bottom of the sea. To a great extent, these artificial islands were supposed to serve the needs of the real estate market which was booming in the UAE (Froelich, 2008, p. 430). It was supposed that the territory could be used fo r various residential projects such as the construction of restaurants, luxury hotels, shopping malls, villas, or sports facilities (Froelich, 2008, p. 430). The islands can be used by various businesses that intend to operate in Dubai. The availability of artificial islands can stimulate the growth of tourism in the UAE. At present, many of the construction projects on the Palm Islands have not been completed. However, there are many people who are willing to settle on the Palm Islands (Roza, 2009, p. 54). They prefer to move to Palm Jumeirah because it has the most developed infrastructure (Roza, 2009, p. 54). These are some of the details that can be identified, but there are several environmental problems that should not be overlooked. First of all, these projects can disrupt the functioning of many marine eco-systems. One should not forget about the erosion of the coastline (Roza, 2009, p. 54). These are the risks that are associated with land reclamation (Roza, 2009, p. 54). O verall, the construction of these artificial islands is one of the most ambitious development projects that are now carried out in the UAE, as more than $ 12 billion have already been spent.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These artificial islands are constructed by the government that wants to stimulate the development of the real estate market in Dubai. The costs associated with these artificial islands can be justified if investors are willing to use the territory. In case the demand for this territory decreases, these artificial islands may become an extra burden for Dubai. These are the main details that can be identified. Masdar City Abu Dhabi has taken a different development approach which is a symbol of the city’s attempt to develop a sustainable and environmentally sensitive socio economic growth plan. It can be described as an arcology or a set of interrelated buildings and infrastructural facilities that can remain sustainable for a long time. Abu Dhabi’s government has instigated a Swiss Village, MASDAR City, an urban green space design, which is a new urban area designed from scratch that will only depend on renewable energy. The designers are using the sun, the desert’s greatest threat, as a great asset for renewable energy. The construction of this complex will require approximately $ 22 billion (Pollalis 2013, p. 253). There are several distinct elements of Masdar City. This arcology will rely primarily on renewable energy sources, and it will not be dependent on fuel or electricity produced in other parts of Abu Dhabi (Pollalis 2013, p. 253). Although Masdar is marketed as green over the top project, it is a way to get the message out into the open, and make people realize that they need to change the way the population thinks. It is not about advertising but about a new way of living and thinki ng. It is isolated, and if you do not fit in, you are not accepted. As for the man-made islands, environmental aspects have been ignored during the urban development process. Decision makers and planners must understand the relation between a built and a natural environment in order to enhance the urban characteristics in a sustainable manner, as these could trigger long-term environmental economic and social impacts (Gret-Regamey ET AL. 2008). It is expected that this artificial complex can provide accommodation to more than sixty thousand people who will be living and working there. This complex will be oriented for the needs of companies that will work on the development of sustainable technologies (Brebbia 2011, p. 37).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on UAE Islands specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Masdar City will also be used by research centers and educational organizations. The functioning of this arco logy will be based on the use of sustainable transportation such as E-taxis (Brebbia 2011, p. 37). The private vehicles of employees will not be used on the territory of Masdar City. Also, much attention will be paid to the recycling of waste that will be re-used (Smith 2012, p. 309). This project is carried out by a governmental organization, namely Abu Dhabi Future Energy Company. This organization intends to make Abu Dhabi more sustainable, especially at the time when natural resources are becoming scarce. This is the long-term objective that policy-makers want to attain. Additionally, the construction of this arcology can boost the growth of the real estate market in Abu Dhabi because it can attract many investors from different countries. People working in Masdar City may want to buy or rent apartments in other areas of Abu Dhabi and the demand for housing might eventually increase. Thus, the completion of this complex can have long-lasting implications for many people in Abu D habi. This city will be completed at the end of 2025 and it could be an important step in the development of the housing industry in the United Arab Emirates. It is possible that similar residential projects will be implemented in the country or neighboring states. References Badescu, V Cathcart, R 2011, Macro-engineering Seawater in Unique Environments: Arid Lowlands and Water Bodies Rehabilitation, Springer, New York. Brebbia, C 2011, Sustainable Development and Planning V, WIT Press, Boston. Froelich, B 2008, A Bull for All Seasons: Main Street Strategies for Finding the Money in Any Market, McGraw Hill Professional, New York.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Gret-Regamey et al. 2008, Ecosystem Services in Agricultural and Urban Landscapes, John Wiley Sons, Hoboken. Pollalis, S 2013, Infrastructure Sustainability and Design, Routledge, New York. Roza, G 2009, The Creation of Islands, The Rosen Publishing Group, New York. Smith, P 2012, City: A Guidebook for the Urban Age, Bloomsbury Publishing, London.

Internal Recruitment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Internal Recruitment - Research Paper Example This policy is mainly concerned about promotions where the current employees can be elevated to higher positions on the basis of factors such as merit as well as experience in that particular field. Performance reviews will be used to formulate such policy and the final decisions can only be made by senior management within the organization. Discussion of the characteristics that make such a policy effective There are various characteristics that make such a policy effective. A policy that has been formulated on the basis of impartiality is likely to succeed if carefully implemented in the organization. This entails that all promotions should be done without fear or favour and the results are likely to satisfy the needs of all the employees in the organization. In order to do this, the strategy of carrying out a job analysis should be carried out first before promoting the employees. Basically, a job analysis is described as a step by step process of obtaining information about a job that is done through identifying the skills, duties and knowledge required for taking that job in the company organisation (Grobler, 2006). When this information is available, informed decisions about promoting the right candidates are likely to be made in the company. This also helps the management to make a good job description that can suit the experience as well as qualifications of the employees within the organization who can be considered for promotion. According to Carell (1995), the most important rule when carrying out a recruitment exercise is that from time to time, the human resources management should always strive to attract job candidates with the required competencies and traits in order to be in a better position to perform the required tasks. The other characteristic that makes such a policy effective is that it should be based on talent inventory which is described as a database that contains the information about the pool of current employees (Werner, Schuler & Jackson, 2012). Talent inventories usually include information such as employees’ names, prior job experiences, performance and compensation histories as well as demonstrated performances. This is a very effective way of monitoring talent among the employees in the organization. This also helps the company to make informed decisions when elevating other employees to senior or higher position. Experience and previous performance are two very important factors that ought to be taken into consideration when making a decision about promoting certain individuals in the organization. This is effective in that employees who are selected internally have the knowledge about what is expected from them since they have been working in the company. Impact on employee engagement and retention There are several benefits that can be achieved from implementing an internal transfer and promotion policy in the organization. Of the several advantages of internal recruitment within a company, it can be noted that an increase in morale among the employees is one of the major one. In most cases, promotion often comes with other related benefits and these motivate employees to put optimum effort in their performance which also significantly helps to retain them. Happy employees in the

Social Media Users in Finland and Poland Assignment

Social Media Users in Finland and Poland - Assignment Example In July 2012, during the 16 International Christian Internet Congress staged in Munich, the attending church representatives unanimously agreed there was need for Christian organizations to boost their internet connective and interaction through social media. The outcome of the Munich conference was later discussed by Christian leaders in Finland in their annual meeting. Although only 35% of Finnish Christians use Facebook and other social sites, churches had lost more forty thousand faithful in less than four months. This served as an indication of how important social media are in wooing loyalist including fundamentalist. Churches therefore saw the need to retain their flocks by going socially online. It is from then that religious institutions adjusted their marketing strategy. Churches went ahead to appoint a team of delegates to investigate the role of social media in the modern society and also respond onslaught of social media criticisms. Instead, churches in Finland and the r est of Europe proposed new ways of positively using social media to preach the gospel and win new converts. Churches therefore launched an interactive social websites where their followers can post comments, videos, blogs, and pictures which would encourage other website followers. However, because of increasing cases of hacking, churches were forced to deploy experts and administrators to manage and integrate their sites (Scott, & Scott, 2011, p.63-4). The increasing use of online and digital communication technologies.... From political, corporate, to religious, all the organizations currently embrace social networks or media. Churches across Finland and Poland were surveyed on their how active to they use social media as a marketing base. The result polled by Buzzplant marketing agency revealed that these institutions often used social media to popularize themselves. Even millennium old institutions were found to have joined social network train. The survey covered about 250 churches in Finland on their position towards social media. Surprisingly, the finding of the survey established that religious institutions strongly believed on the effectiveness of social media form of outreach (Scott, 2010, p.89). Over forty six percent of the respondents indicated their preference of social media as an effective way of reaching out to their followers with only 25% of them preferring knocking on the door, and 6% indicating that TV is a better way of gaining numbers. Similar to Poland, Facebook and twitter were the most popular social networks for a large number of religious followers. This was evidence by the frequency at which these churches updated their Facebook or twitter pages on a daily account (Armfield, & Holbert, 2003, p.129). In July 2012, during the 16 International Christian Internet Congress staged in Munich, the attending church representatives unanimously agreed there was need for Christian organizations to boost their internet connective and interaction through social media. The outcome of the Munich conference was later discussed by Christian leaders in Finland in their annual meeting. Although only 35% of Finnish Christians use Facebook and other social sites, churches had lost more forty thousand faithful in less than four months. This served as an indication of how

Art Culture and History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Art Culture and History - Essay Example But whilst Bocaccio does not give much importance to frame, one f Chaucer's greatest and most particular abilities lies in the creation f characters. Chaucer's main interest, and quite a modern one, is on portraying different human types. Chaucer chooses sources that fit with his purposes, using intertextuality to achieve a personal creative goal. The Wife f Baths's Tale is really appropriate to her character. Drawn from a popular story -already written by Gower in his Confessio Amantis, and later to become The Wedding f Sir Gawen and the Dame f Ragnell (in a manuscript written circa 1450)- the Tale looks for an answer to the question 'What do women most desire'. In the prologue to the tale, Chaucer develops some f his most shiny and colorful narrative that's containing great examples f intertextuality, but they are not as obvious as in the tale. For instance, there is a clear influence f Confessions, in the opening lines f the Wife's parliament: "If there were no authority on earth/ except experience; mine, for what it's worth,/ and that's enough for me, all goes to show/ that marriage is a raisery and a woe;/ For let me say, if I may make so bold,/ My lords, since when I was but twelve years old,/ Thanks be to God Eternal evermore,/ Five husbands have I had at the church door;" (Chaucer 279). The story that the pilgrims are going to listen to it's the story f her life and marriages. Truth be told, the wife's tale has little to do with the Confessions f St. Agoustin. In fact, the prologue's main plot is closer to the fabliaux tradition and its popular and sexual-orientated stories. The prologue shares with the Confessions a similar autobiographical tone, but switched to serve Chaucer's intentions, that in this case are slightly ironical. Fabliaux's witty word games are also shown in this prologue. "God bade us all to wax and multiply./ That kindly text I well can understand." (280) Or: "Let them be pure wheat loaves f maiden head/ And let us wives be known for barley-bread;/Yet Mark can tell that barley-bread sufficed/to freshen many at the hand f Christ" (282). The cheeky Wife's personality seems to be pretty convenient to the word games and the humorous content f her parliament. There is also strong influence f the exempla's tone that is also present in the prologue. "Listen, I'll tell you how I used to hold them,/you knowing women, who can understand." (284) Here, the wife uses her experiences to advise women on how to treat their husbands. The intention f her prologue is similar to the aim f the priest's exemplas, teaching the populace on how to behave. f course, the prologue's content is, again, far away from the exempla's and closer to popular tradition. Chaucer's tales are written in iambic couplets, a form that allows him to express himself more freely and brings him to one f his highest achievements: the transformation f English language into a vehicle that could drive popular and high literature through new ways f expression. This is probably one f the most attractive peculiarities f Chaucer, and probably the one that attracted Shakespeare to Chaucer the most. Chaucer's aim to transform English language was present in

Poppers Falsifiability As A Criterion Of Demarcation

Poppers Falsifiability As A Criterion Of Demarcation The problem of demarcation has long preoccupied philosophers of science who wished to differentiate pseudo-science from science itself. Many solutions have been attempted, but it is still, in my opinion, Poppers falsfiability which addresses the demarcation problem most effectively. This paper will therefore argue for a revised use of falsifiability as a criterion of demarcation. To argue this point, a clear explanation of Poppers falsfiability criterion will be attempted, as well as an examination of the criticisms falsifiability has received, specifically in relation to the Duhem-Quine problem and Kuhns problem of incommensurability. This paper will then conclude with a discussion of ad hoc modifications and ultimately demonstrate that falsifiability can convincingly demarcate science from pseudo-science. Early on in his book Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, Popper notes that the Logical Positivists differentiated science from pseudo-science by its empirical method; in other words they believed that science relied on induction from experience while non-scientific disciplines did not. This, according to Popper, was untrue, since fields such as astrology, a pseudo-science, also used induction from observation to justify their claims, relying on things such as horoscopes, biographies, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Unsatisfied, Popper notes that although some pseudo-scientific claims might be just as truthful as scientific ones, the problem of demarcation needed to be solved so that philosophers, scientists and the public alike could distinguish scientific theories from those which merely pretended to be scientific. Verifiability was seen as a solution to the problem of demarcation for philosophers such as Wittgenstein, but not for Popper, whoargued that pseudo-scientists relied very much on verifiability in order to convince their peers of the scientific status of their theories. This point is illustrated in Poppers anecdote in which Alfred Adler supports his theory of inferiority feelings by his thousand-fold experience. This personal experience convinced Popper that the very ability of pseudo-scientific theories, such as Marxism and Freudianism, to incessantly confirm their predictions, in other words with overwhelming verifiability, was in fact the strongest argument against them. Verifiability, therefore, could not be an adequate criterion of demarcation. Before further exploring Poppers explanation of falsifiability as a criterion of demarcation, it is important to draw a distinction. While Popper uses the terms falsifiability and testability interchangeably, this paper will not. Falsifiability, in this paper, will be seen as the possibility of a concept being both theoretically and practically falsifiable, while testable will be restricted to things only falsifiable in practice. This distinction is important as it entails that, if falsifiability is to be used a criterion of demarcation, theories which can only be falsified in theory, such as Newtons second law, can in fact reach scientific status. Indeed, although there is no place in the universe in which no forces will be exerted on a body, Newtons second law remains falsifiable (not testable) and therefore can still be viewed as scientific. Testability would be too restricting as a criterion of demarcation. Popper explains that the value of falsifiability lies in its risk. If a theory is falsified, it is subsequently refuted by the scientific community. Pseudo-sciences, it is argued, attempt to avoid falsifiability either by providing unfalsifiable predictions or destroying their falsifiability through ad hoc modifications, a procedure he calls a conventionalist twist. The first case, that is providing unfalsifiable predictions, is exemplified in Poppers view of Astrology. Astrology makes predictions and prophecies in such a vague manner, that it is impossible to falsify their predictions. For example, predicting that today Libras will counter an emotional block in one of their long term goals is not falsifiable: practically any event can be interpreted as an emotional block in a long-term goal. By escaping falsifiability, astrology has in fact prevented itself from reaching scientific status. Poppers second remark on pseudo-sciences, that it is about those which escape falsifiability through ad hoc modifications, has been much more controversial, inspiring much criticism from other philosophers of science. However, before addressing the issue of ad hoc modification, this paper will address the criticisms of falsifiability known as the Duhem-Quine problem and Kuhns problem of incommensurability in order to prove a much needed revision of Poppers falsifiability. The Duhem-Quine problem is a strong criticism of Poppers falsifiability. It was first proposed in Pierre Duhems The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory. The Duhem-Quine problem revolves around the idea of holism, which explains that any given system, such as a proposed scientific theory, relies heavily on its components ability to work together as a group. Duhem proposes that the theories of physics cannot be tested in isolation, as the testing theories of physics themselves require the use of auxiliary hypotheses, a stance known today as confirmation holism. This argument can effectively be extrapolated to all the sciences, thus entailing that the testing of scientific theories relies on the use of materials and methods which themselves rely on other theories. For example, when testing a theory that predicts the position of certain stars, one uses a telescope, a tool built on the assumption that our theories on electromagnetic radiation are both correct and accurate. The Duhem-Quin e problem thus proposes that the testing of isolated theories is impossible, a proposition which can be seen as an attack on the use of falsifiability as a criterion of demarcation between scientific and pseudo-scientific theories. The act of falsifying can be understood as comparing a theorys predictions to the results of experimentation. If the theorys predictions are found to be different from the experimentation results, the theory is falsified. This is problematic for subscribers to confirmation holism who accept the fact that falsifying a theory can only establish that there is an error in either the theory or our background assumptions, and not where, or even what, the error is. Therefore, if it is assumed that the testing of any theory relies on many different background theories, all scientific theories could escape falsification by simply transferring the error to its background theories. Referring back to the telescope example, if a theory inaccurately predicted the position of Pluto, this theory could escape falsification simply by stating that the error lies not in its prediction but within the theory of electromagnetic radiation. This is problematic for Poppers use of falsifiability as a criterion of demarcation as the falsification of an isolated scientific theory would be impossible. This, in turn, would mean that the testing of theories, scientific or pseudo-scientific, holds the inherent characteristic of escaping falsification, making falsification an impossible criterion of demarcation. To answer the Duhem-Quine problem, Poppers use of falsifiability as a criterion of demarcation must be revised. It must be conceded that the process of testing a scientific theory in isolation is unfeasible, as our methods of testing themselves rely on background assumptions. Yet, it does not make falsifiability obsolete as a criterion of demarcation, just more exhaustive. Unlike as Popper had suggested, it is not sufficient for a theory to be falsifiable for it to be scientific. All isolated theories, scientific or pseudo-scientific, attempt to escape falsification by pegging the source of error on the background assumptions of testing. Moreover, it is not adequate to propose that all background assumptions upon which the testing of a theory is based must also be falsifiable in order for that theory to be scientific, as this would be too restricting. Every theory is built upon an infinite number of assumptions, a problem analogous to underdeterminism, and inevitably all theories wou ld be pseudo-scientific. For example, the testing of Newtons laws of motions is based on the unfalsifiable assumption that the human observation of motion is accurate. It is for this reason that I believe scientific theories must not be viewed as isolated propositions, but rather as part of a scientific system which requires the provision of at least one falsifiable method of testing. This is a criterion which the pseudo-science of astrology, for example, fails to meet, as astrology provides no falsifiable method of testing its predictions, while Newtons laws provide falsifiable equations (ex: F=ma) as a method of testing its predictions. It is thus concluded that only scientific systems are falsifiable. Another criticism of Poppers falsifiability has been the argument that falsification does not produce an accurate picture of science, that falsificationist methodologies incorrectly depict science as a sort of pyramid of knowledge, where scientific knowledge is accumulated over time (brick by brick) to provide an ever-progressing image of how the universe works (the pyramid itself). This view of science, heavily endorsed by Karl Popper, is the subject of criticism in Thomas Kuhns book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, where the l[?] problem of incommensurability is introduced. Thomas Kuhn argues that science, as a historical discipline, is in reality not an accumulation of knowledge, but rather a collection of normal science and scientific revolutions. In order to fully appreciate Kuhns argument, it must first be understood what Kuhn meant by paradigm. For Kuhn, a paradigm stands for the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques and so on shared by the members of a given community (Kuhn 175) in this case, the scientific community. Kuhn defines normal science as the period where scientists methodologies and goals are unified within a paradigm; Aristotelian physics would, for example, be a period of normal science where scientists agreed on sciences goal and methodology. Establishing this, Kuhn then proceeds to label science-as-accumulation as a myth. It is argued that different periods of normal science are incommensurable: they cannot understand each other methodologies, goals, taxonomy, etc. and as such, science cannot be seen as progressive di scipline, seeing that its history is simply a collection of different methods, goals and values which have irrationally changed over time. [Scientists] neither test nor seek to confirm the guiding theories of their paradigm (Bjà ¸rhusda) but simply adhere to the rules of science within their paradigm. If this view is accepted, it must be concluded that falsification could not demarcate science from other disciplines, such as the pseudo-sciences, as science is seen not as a discipline requiring falsifiability, but rather a discipline which solely adheres to ever-changing regulations, goals and methodologies. This problem of incommensurability across different paradigms poses a serious problem to Poppers use of falsifiability as criterion of demarcation, although it might not be seen at first. If it is accepted that the goals, regulations and methods of science are ever-changing, falsifiability cannot be viewed as a fixed requirement of science, much less a criterion of demarcation. After all, how could falsifiability provide us with an accurate picture of science if scientific theories do not hold permanently the unchanging desire to be falsifiable? Once again, a revision of Poppers use of falsificationism as a criterion of demarcation is needed. Although I do recognize that the history of science is, to a certain degree, a collection of incommensurable paradigms, I do not believe that the history of science is a correct representation of science as a discipline. I would argue that science is in reality a normative concept, and more of a goal than a historical accumulation of theories. Many philosophers of science, such as Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn and even Imre Lakatos all mistakenly believed that the history of science and science itself are identical concepts, although in my opinion, the history of science is most accurately described by Imre Lakatos. Imre Lakatos argued that, much like Kuhn, scientists did not produce single, isolated theories throughout time, but rather worked within research programs (a concept very similar to Kuhns paradigms). In an attempt to reconcile Poppers falsificationist approach to science with Kuhns incommensurability, Lakatos argued that the history of science was actually the process of falsifying research programmes. In this view, the problem of incommensurability is rendered insignificant, as research programmes (which are substantially equivalent to paradigms) are not required to be commensurable, as each is falsified along the way. This provides a vision of the history of science as an accumulation of falsifiable knowledge. Nev ertheless, ad hoc modifications were observed by Lakatos as being a part of the history of science, and inadvertently attributed to science itself. Although Lakatos history of science approach is eloquent, it is incorrect in assuming that since ad hoc modifications are present in the history of science then ad hoc modifications must be a part of science itself. Ad hoc modifications are undoubtedly a part of the history of science, but they are not part of science as a discipline as they do not conform to sciences normative goals. To illustrate this point, Einsteins formulation of the cosmological constant may be used as an example. In order to justify his Theory of General Relativity, Einstein required a static universe one that [would] stand(s) still and (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) not collapse under the force of gravity in a big crunch (Texas AM University). In order to support this claim, Einstein proposed an ad hoc modification, his cosmological constant, a move he later recalled as his greatest blunder. It is here that the distinction between the history of science and science as a discipline can be seen. In truth, over the course o f history, scientists like Albert Einstein have practiced science in many different ways. They have used ad hoc modification to support their theories, a mistake which has been practiced by scientists and pseudo-scientists alike. But science as a discipline is separate from its history, as it is a normative goal which has employed the use of scientific systems, that is, of falsifiable theories and testing methods, in order to gain valuable inductive knowledge about the universe around us, something that pseudo-sciences have not. To conclude, Poppers falsifiability, although convincing, requires [considerable] revision in order to be used as a criterion of demarcation. Indeed, it should be understood that science is a normative discipline where falsifiability is required and where planned modifications take precedence over ad hoc modifications, unlike pseudo-science which satisfies itself in confirming predictions. It should also be understood that this paper does not provide a complete description of science, as many questions remain. Perhaps the most glaring, which was not discussed in this paper due to length constraints, is the problem of how to falsify statements such as all metals conduct electricity, a problem posed by Carl Hempel. Finally, although falsifiability is a requirement of science, it is simply one criterion in a whole set of criteria which distinguish the discipline of science from pseudo-science in a normative attempt to create knowledge through falsifiable scientific systems.

The Catholics take on the end of the world :: essays research papers

The Last Judgment and The End of the World What would one do if you knew the world was going to end in 5 minutes? Would they do all the things they always desired to do but never got the time for? Would one get down and pray for absolution or would they sit back, relax and anticipate for the apocalypse to come. Everyone has some idea that they will be judged at the end of time of all the every day decisions that they make. There are 4 main areas of curiosity about the Last Judgment and the end of the world that this writer will familiarize you on in this paper, what it will be like preceding The Coming, When the Judgment will take place, the two types of judgment, and the conclusion afterwards.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Everyone has his own sentiment of when he thinks the world will end some said it would happen at the turn of the millennium but it didn’t, others have hypothesized random dates throughout history But none have come true as to date. Jesus teaches that many calamities will mark the Second Coming and the Apocalypse. Kevin Knight writes in an article for New Advent and in it he says, â€Å"They are meant to foreshadow not to tell the day or the time, and will include. 1) The General Preaching of the Christian Religion. 2) The Conversion of the Jews. 3) The Return of Enoch and Elijah. 4) A Great Apostasy or revolt against the Catholic Faith. 5) The Reign of Antichrist who will be a powerful adversary of Christ. He will seduce the nations by his wonders, and persecute the Church. 6) Extraordinary Perturbations of Nature. 7) The Universal Conflagration. 8) The Trumpets of Resurrection will awaken the dead to resurrection. 9) The sign of the Son of Man Appearing i n Heaven or in a wonderful cross of light.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Earth should last for millions of years and gradually get colder until all life forms die, unless God steps in and brings the world, as the world knows it and passes out the last judgment. The population does not know when the Second Coming will transpire but they must be perpetually on the watch because it will come like a thief in the night.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The American Heritage Dictionary defines the Last Judgment as The final judgment by God of all mankind. This interpretation is accurate but not fully complete because there is more behind it than that simple definition.

Deception Point Page 56

â€Å"He's breaking the law,† Gabrielle said. Isn't he? â€Å"Or so Marjorie Tench would have you believe. Candidates accept behind-the-scenes donations all the time from big corporations. It may not be pretty, but it's not necessarily illegal. In fact, most legal issues deal not with where the money comes from but how the candidate chooses to spend it.† Gabrielle hesitated, feeling uncertain now. â€Å"Gabs, the White House played you this afternoon. They tried to turn you against your candidate, and so far you've called their bluff. If I were looking for someone to trust, I think I'd stick with Sexton before jumping ship to someone like Marjorie Tench.† Yolanda's phone rang. She answered, nodding, uh-huh-ing, taking notes. â€Å"Interesting,† she finally said. â€Å"I'll be right there. Thanks.† Yolanda hung up and turned with an arched brow. â€Å"Gabs, sounds like you're off the hook. Just as I predicted.† â€Å"What's going on?† â€Å"I don't have a specific yet, but I can tell you this much-the president's press conference has nothing to do with sex scandals or campaign finance.† Gabrielle felt a flash of hope and wanted badly to believe her. â€Å"How do you know that?† â€Å"Someone on the inside just leaked that the press conference is NASA-related.† Gabrielle sat up suddenly. â€Å"NASA?† Yolanda winked. â€Å"This could be your lucky night. My bet is President Herney is feeling so much pressure from Senator Sexton that he's decided the White House has no choice but to pull the plug on the International Space Station. That explains all the global media coverage.† A press conference killing the space station? Gabrielle could not imagine. Yolanda stood up. â€Å"That Tench attack this afternoon? It was probably just a last-ditch effort to get a foothold over Sexton before the President had to go public with the bad news. Nothing like a sex scandal to take the attention away from another presidential flop. Anyhow, Gabs, I've got work to do. My advice to you-get yourself a cup of coffee, sit right here, turn on my television, and ride this out like the rest of us. We've got twenty minutes until show time, and I'm telling you, there is no way the President is going Dumpster-diving tonight. He's got the whole world watching. Whatever he has to say carries some serious weight.† She gave a reassuring wink. â€Å"Now give me the envelope.† â€Å"What?† Yolanda held out a demanding hand. â€Å"These pictures are getting locked in my desk until this is over. I want to be sure you don't do something idiotic.† Reluctantly, Gabrielle handed over the envelope. Yolanda locked the photos carefully in a desk drawer and pocketed the keys. â€Å"You'll thank me, Gabs. I swear it.† She playfully ruffled Gabrielle's hair on her way out. â€Å"Sit tight. I think good news is on the way.† Gabrielle sat alone in the glass cubicle and tried to let Yolanda's upbeat attitude lift her mood. All Gabrielle could think of, though, was the self-satisfied smirk on the face of Marjorie Tench this afternoon. Gabrielle could not imagine what the President was about to tell the world, but it was definitely not going to be good news for Senator Sexton. 65 Rachel Sexton felt like she was being burned alive. It's raining fire! She tried to open her eyes, but all she could make out were foggy shapes and blinding lights. It was raining all around her. Scalding hot rain. Pounding down on her bare skin. She was lying on her side and could feel hot tiles beneath her body. She curled more tightly into the fetal position, trying to protect herself from the scalding liquid falling from above. She smelled chemicals. Chlorine, maybe. She tried to crawl away, but she could not. Powerful hands pressed down on her shoulders, holding her down. Let me go! I'm burning! Instinctively, she again fought to escape, and again she was rebuffed, the strong hands clamping down. â€Å"Stay where you are,† a man's voice said. The accent was American. Professional. â€Å"It will be over soon.† What will be over? Rachel wondered. The pain? My life? She tried to focus her vision. The lights in this place were harsh. She sensed the room was small. Cramped. Low ceilings. â€Å"I'm burning!† Rachel's scream was a whisper. â€Å"You're fine,† the voice said. â€Å"This water is lukewarm. Trust me.† Rachel realized she was mostly undressed, wearing only her soaked underwear. No embarrassment registered; her mind was filled with too many other questions. The memories were coming back now in a torrent. The ice shelf. The GPR. The attack. Who? Where am I? She tried to put the pieces together, but her mind felt torpid, like a set of clogged gears. From out of the muddled confusion came a single thought: Michael and Corky†¦ where are they? Rachel tried to focus her bleary vision but saw only the men standing over her. They were all dressed in the same blue jumpsuits. She wanted to speak, but her mouth refused to formulate a single word. The burning sensation in her skin was now giving way to sudden deep waves of aching that rolled through the muscles like seismic tremors. â€Å"Let it happen,† the man over her said. â€Å"The blood needs to flow back into your musculature.† He spoke like a doctor. â€Å"Try to move your limbs as much as you can.† The pain racking Rachel's body felt as if every muscle was being beaten with a hammer. She lay there on the tile, her chest contracting, and she could barely breathe. â€Å"Move your legs and arms,† the man insisted. â€Å"No matter what it feels like.† Rachel tried. Each movement felt like a knife being thrust into her joints. The jets of water grew hotter again. The scalding was back. The crushing pain went on. At the precise instant she thought she could not withstand another moment, Rachel felt someone giving her an injection. The pain seemed to subside quickly, less and less violent, releasing. The tremors slowed. She felt herself breathing again. A new sensation was spreading through her body now, the eerie bite of pins and needles. Everywhere-stabbing-sharper and sharper. Millions of tiny needle-point jabs, intensifying whenever she moved. She tried to hold motionless, but the water jets continued to buffet her. The man above her was holding her arms, moving them. God that hurts! Rachel was too weak to fight. Tears of exhaustion and pain poured down her face. She shut her eyes hard, blocking out the world. Finally, the pins and needles began to dissipate. The rain from above stopped. When Rachel opened her eyes, her vision was clearer. It was then that she saw them. Corky and Tolland lay nearby, quivering, half-naked and soaked. From the looks of anguish on their faces, Rachel sensed that they had just endured similar experiences. Michael Tolland's brown eyes were bloodshot and glassy. When he saw Rachel, he managed a weak smile, his blue lips trembling. Rachel tried to sit up, to take in their bizarre surroundings. The three of them were lying in a trembling twist of half-naked limbs on the floor of a tiny shower room. 66 Strong arms lifted her. Rachel felt the powerful strangers drying her body and wrapping her in blankets. She was being placed on a medical bed of some sort and vigorously massaged on her arms, legs, and feet. Another injection in her arm. â€Å"Adrenaline,† someone said. Rachel felt the drug coursing through her veins like a life force, invigorating her muscles. Although she still felt an icy hollowness tight like a drum in her gut, Rachel sensed the blood slowly returning to her limbs. Back from the dead. She tried to focus her vision. Tolland and Corky were lying nearby, shivering in blankets as the men massaged their bodies and gave them injections as well. Rachel had no doubt that this mysterious assemblage of men had just saved their lives. Many of them were soaking wet, apparently having jumped into the showers fully clothed to help. Who they were or how they had gotten to Rachel and the others in time was beyond her. It made no difference at the moment. We're alive.

How to write for a global audience - Emphasis

How to write for a global audience How to write for a global audience The growth in global commerce means it is more likely than ever that your writing will have an international audience. Increasingly, we need to communicate with people who speak English as a second language, whether they are based in the UK or overseas. But your words can easily get lost in translation when writing for this readership, especially if you arent adapting your copy. To ensure all your readers fully understand your message, it is essential to make your writing as clear as possible, and bear some rules in mind. Emails between colleagues Even informal emails between co-workers need thinking about. Heres a reply to a colleague who has suggested you visit her office. Hi Mariela Thanks for the invitation. Phil and I are definitely up for it, but as its on the firms time, Ill need to get the go ahead from Tony Ill talk to him asap and get back to you. Jan At first sight this seems to be a perfectly clear email, but Mariela is a second-language speaker of English. This means we have to re-examine our writing. Language barriers Lets take a closer look at the language in the email to recognise the traps we can fall into: Clusters of meaningless words Phil and I are definitely up for it: the English language has hundreds of these clusters, eg put up with, look up to, top it up, which together have specific meanings. They are called phrasal verbs and we can often replace them with a one-word simple alternative, eg tolerate, admire, fill. Confusing words On the firms time: company or organisation are more recognisable words than firm in the context of work. Also, firm has more than one meaning, which could be confusing. And a literal translation of on the time wouldnt make sense. Colloquial expressions To get the go ahead: second-language speakers often enjoy these expressions once they know them. But we cant guarantee they know them yet. So, unless youre sure, avoid them. Abbreviations Asap: again, unless youre confident your reader knows the abbreviations, they will be meaningless. Heres a rewrite of the email: Hi Mariela Thanks for the invitation. Phil and I definitely want to come. Ill need to get Tonys permission as its during the working week. Ill talk to him as soon as I can and tell you what he says. Jan Its still informal and natural, but so much clearer to non-native English speakers.

Lincoln and Jefferson Davis essays

Lincoln and Jefferson Davis essays In this report I compare two great historical figures: Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president, steered the Union to victory in the American Civil War and abolished slavery, and the first and only president of the Confederate States of America, Jefferson Davis. Abraham Lincoln was the President of the Union, and Jefferson Davis struggled to lead the Confederacy to independence in the U.S. Civil War. Lincoln was treasured by the African Americans and was considered an earthly incarnation of the Savior of mankind (DeGregorio 20-25). On the other hand, Davis was both admired and hated. Lincoln had a different view of how the U.S. should be in abolishing slavery. Davis was a politician, president of the Confederate States of America, and also a successful planter. He had beliefs for the South to continue in the old ways with slavery and plantations. Both Lincoln and Davis had strong feelings for the protection of their land (Arnold 55-57). Both Abraham and Jefferson Davis shared several differences and similarities. Lincoln was known to have an easy going and joking type attitude. In contrast, Davis had a temper such that when challenged, he simply could not back down (DeGregorio 89). Davis had been a fire-eater before Abraham Lincolns election, but the prospect of Civil War made him gloomy and depressed. Fifty-three years old in 1861, he suffered from a variety of ailments such as fever, neuralgia, and inflamed eye, poor digestion, insomnia, and stress. Lincoln also suffered from illnesses during the war. He had severe cases of headaches and stress. Both presidents had a lot of pressure of them due to the fact of defending their region. Lincoln had difficulties growing up because of the deaths early in his childhood, poverty, and little education. Davis; however, studied at a Roman Catholic school in Kentucky and at Transylvania University, and entered West Point in 1824. Davis seemed to have had an outreaching envir onment to his suc...

Annotated Bibilograpy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Annotated Bibilograpy - Essay Example ducing the person’s core temperature to 32–34 °C  by using a cooling device after resuscitation; and this normally termed as therapeutic hypothermia or protective hypothermia. The study by Nolan et al (2003) reflects how therapeutic hypothermia has been helpful since 1950s in preventing global ischemia during open-heart surgeries. The paper has performed a detailed study of the recently published results of some randomized trials  which â€Å"compared mild hypothermia with normothermia in comatose survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest† (Nolan et al, 2003). According to their findings, both Australian hypothermia group and European hypothermia group (the subjects for the research) had favorable neurological outcomes. The authors point out the alarming statistics of death caused by cardiac arrest in the United States every year. The paper also identifies cardiac arrest as a potential cause for neurologic injury. By stating the intensity of the issue, the article highlights the significance of therapeutic hypothermia in improving the above said statistics. The article clearly describes what therapeutic hypothermia is and the situation when it is induced using invasive means. Further parts of the article discuss how cardiac arrest can cause neurologic deficits and what ways therapeutic hypothermia helps to overcome the risk. The article is really a reference guide for a person who learns various phases of the therapeutic hypothermia. This article also explores the history and reliability of supportive research for the use of inducing mild hypothermia after cardiac arrest. The study reflects that among the patients who survive an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, 10 to 30% will have permanent brain damage. As the writer indicates, the study as a whole intends â€Å"to provide an overview of the pathophysiology and research that support the use of induced mild hypothermia† (McKean, 2009). In other words, the work develops a ‘protocol for induced hypothermia

Democritus Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Democritus - Assignment Example Atoms and void alone exist in reality.† The Democritus theory of reality posits that atoms consist of an indivisible number of units. Additionally, atoms have different shapes and sizes but lack quality. The only qualities of an atom include solidity and impenetrability. Atoms are infinite in number thus they move in the void. The concept of the void is very interesting because it has attracted mixed interpretations. According to Parmenides, there is no reality of space. On the other hand, Pythagoreans acknowledged the idea that the void keeps units apart. However, they noted that the void was the atmospheric air. Democritus’ theory of reality affirms that space is not real and that it does not exist. In fact, the theory posits that â€Å"what is not† is real just like â€Å"what is.† Space or void is as real as the body. One important point about the Democritus theory of reality is that space or void is not corporeal. The other major point of the Democritus theory of reality is that there is no place for immortality. According to the philosophy of atomism, the life of an animal or a human being only exists when atoms exist and operate collectively in the form of a body. It implies that the destruction of the body ultimately results in the destruction of the soul. For this reason, the soul cannot survive when the body has been destroyed. The reason is that the destruction of the body results in the atoms getting scattered. Democritus cautions that atoms do not cease to be because no atom can neither come into being nor pass away. Instead, atoms cannot survive individually because they become inert when they are separated from each other. In relation to the idea of atomism and soul, the Democritus theory of reality posits that animals and humans are not different from other composite bodies. The popular belief is that humans are different from rocks because humans can move and think. However, Democritus posits that thinking is a

Early Music through the Baroque Period Assignment

Early Music through the Baroque Period - Assignment Example This book is accompanied by a CD narrated by Ben Kingsley. I found it enlightening because of its overview of orchestra, which it follows up with an array of instrument groups used in orchestras. The brief explanations of the instrument group’s history and distinctive sound qualities However, it would have been better if the instruments were named where they were shown alone, rather than in small group photos, which I found odd. Nevertheless, the highlighting of individual instrument parts with clear labelling of their parts is very helpful, even though the instruments are only named in the smaller photographs showing them in orchestra groups. I agree with the post that the strings in this piece gave the entire performance a whimsical feel, although it would have been better to refer to the marimba, rather than the percussion. In fact, it puts the marimba, an instrument that is rarely given much space, in the centre stage. This post rightly notes that this piece almost follows the rules of tap-dancing, in that it only repeats long enough for the listener to catch its flow, before changing its step. In my case, I would have added the fact about the central character in the piece, a young girl on Christmas Eve, who awakens to romantic love and the wider world. The post makes an important point about this piece being Dvorak’s ninth and last symphony, but I would also have linked this with the fact that nine seems to be a magical number for most composers, such as Mahler, Bruckner, Schubert, and Beethoven.

Behaviour Self Management Essay Example for Free

Behaviour Self Management Essay Behaviour Self-Management Project to Increase Studying Behaviour Behaviour Modification is a technique or approach used by behavioural psychologists to modify a particular behaviour and is largely used in a clinical or educational setting, particularly with those with learning disabilities (Atherton, 2011). Moreover, it also considered to be a treatment approach, as it substitutes undesirable behaviours with desired ones through the process of positive or negative reinforcement (Gary, 1988). Furthermore, behaviour modification has been used to treat numerous mental problems such as obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), phobias, enuresis, generalised anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder and many more. Subsequently, this technique has also been used to correct maladaptive behaviours by changing undesirable behaviours such as smoking, overeating, nail biting and others, as it aims to encourage the substitution of good behaviours such as studying, weight loss and etc (O’Donohue and Ferguson, 2006). The principles of behaviour modification were first developed by B. F Skinner, who had formulated the concept of operant conditioning. Skinner, had developed the concept of positive reinforcement or punishment, whereby behaviours are changed or encouraged through a reward system. Furthermore, the operant conditioning theory also states that for learning to occur, it is important that the subject is an active participant (Sheldon, 1982). In addition, behaviour modification was also formulated by Ivan Pavlov and is famously known as classical conditioning, as it is merely based on a stimuli-response formula. Besides that, Albert Bandura also contributed to behaviour modification principles, through his theory of social modelling (Baldwin Baldwin, 1981). The theory states that learning occurs as a result of copying or imitating other people, and is termed as vicarious learning. Additionally, the theory also states that external reinforcers are important because it enables learning to occur independently of the reinforcements. Consequently, behaviour modification underlies a number of theoretical positions such that human behaviour can easily be influenced by the presentation of consequences and could be strengthened if the behaviour is followed by rewards, as well as substandard if followed by negative consequences (Guez Allen, 2000). Moreover, human behaviour is not only controlled by internal factors, but is also driven by external factors such as social rewards like praises or gifts. Thus, the principles of behaviour modification is different compared to other techniques in changing behaviours, because it addresses the surrounding factors as well as individual factors that can promote or derail behaviour change. Additionally, behaviour modification has also proved its effectiveness in increasing student’s appropriate classroom behaviours. A study had employed behaviour modification in two second grade Negro girls in a demonstration school for the culturally deprived (Wasik, Senn, Welch, Cooper, 1969). Data collected in the study was based on type, duration, and frequency of teacher’s verbal interactions with the student. The study also had implemented an ABAB design, whereas treatment included positive social reinforcement when appropriate behaviours occurred. Punishment had included the use of timeout from social reinforcements, as these behaviours were contingent on inappropriate attention getting behaviours. It was observed that after 25 days, desirable behaviour in the classroom had increased remarkably from 80. % in baseline to 99. 20% in treatment and continued to remain high even after three months. Therefore, this shows that behaviour modification is an effective method to increase desirable behaviours. Target Behaviour It is essential and important that the target behaviour an individual wants to change is operationally defined. The particular behaviour would also require assessment, through collection of the baseline data. Furthermore, the behaviour that I want to change is to increase my studying behaviour, which is a behavioural deficit. Ever since I was in school, I was always known to study towards the end of the semester and could generally be considered as last minute studying. Subsequently, I would tend to be easily distracted by external stimuli such as watching movies or series on the computer, calling up friends and talking for hours as well as easily persuaded to go out. I have been known since young to be very outgoing, thus whenever friends call and ask me to meet up with them, I am bound to go. Therefore, it usually delays my ability to follow my studying schedule that I have created before the semester starts. Moreover, my main antecedent that unable me to complete my suggested two hours studying per night every weekday is also because I have a tendency to download movies or series on the computer and wasting 4 hours or more watching it. There are also consequences that I face because of my procrastination to study, because after watching these series, I would only tend to study less than an hour or not at all if I am tired. Consequently, I would cram all the materials during study week and end up being exhausted. This also is a reason as to why I tend to get ill during exam week, because it causes me to have high level of stress and in turn would affect my health. Hence, these are valid reasons as to why I feel like I need to change my behaviour and start studying more hours as I should so that I would not be stressed out during exams. Besides that, stress could also cause ulcers and the common cold, which in turn could be a setback to me during exam week as I am prone to get ulcers. Additionally, it would also allow me to focus more to improve my grade ratings to my expectations as I will soon complete my undergraduate program. Other than that, increasing my studying behaviour would also allow me to get sufficient sleep and rest for the upcoming exam and it would also benefit me in terms of managing my time efficiently. Method Design The design that I have chosen for this particular self management project is the ABAB reversal design. This design represents the attempt to first measure the baseline, the treatment that follows the initial baseline, the introduction of the second baseline as well as the reintroduction of the treatment again. Additionally, this method of application helps identify the effects of treatment and measure what happens when treatment is removed. Hence, this research design would help establish whether functional relationship exists between the target behaviour and intervention. Materials The materials used in this project include a structured diary that is recorded in the computer, behaviour contract, handphone, post-it notes, playing cards and reminders. Procedure Additionally, for this particular behaviour modification project, the operational definition is first defined as reading pages from the textbook and underlining as well as understanding sentences in the text and reading notes from the lectures for two hours. Furthermore, the behaviour would be recorded through self monitoring during baseline and treatment period as the behaviour does not occur frequently throughout the day and it only occurs during the period when no one else is around to observe. The observational period is recorded in the natural setting, which is in the study room at my home, and it is where studying behaviour typically occurs. The type of behavioural recording used is the duration recording, whereby studying behaviour is observed for two hours, between 8. 30p. m to 10. 0p. m on weekdays only. Next, in order to increase studying behaviour during weekdays, a generalised conditioned reinforcer, which is the token economy system is used because it reinforces the behaviour and minimises the need to use reactive strategies to deal with setbacks as well as it enables the ability to pair up with a variety of other reinforcers. In addition, the token economy is a playing card with my housemate’s signature on it, and one card would be given each day, whenever the desired behaviour occurred at least 2 hours a day. Furthermore, the acquired tokens would be eligible to trade with certain privileges and would be forfeited if the behaviour does not meet the expected requirements. Hence, a variety of backup reinforces are used in exchange with the accumulated playing cards on every Friday to determine the type of privileges that would be given and further information is provided in the behavioural contract (Appendix A). Besides that, punishment would be provided if I fail to meet the expected requirement. Additionally, the schedule of reinforcement chosen for this particular project is fixed interval, whereby studying behaviour is reinforced only if it occurs for at least two hours. The behaviour occurrence would also be recorded in the computer, as the behaviour occurs at home in the study room. Besides that, during the treatment period, my friends and housemate have also promised to give me social support and reinforcements. In addition, various types of response and stimulus prompts are also used in this project. Verbal prompts such as reminders to study are used by friends and housemates to evoke the desired behaviour in myself. They will do this by not persuading me to go out with them and reminding me to study instead. Furthermore, environmental prompts are also used in this project such as post its on the mirror, computer in the study room and class file that I carry to class every day, as well as using the hand phone to set alarm to study. In addition, within prompt fading was used in the second treatment period, for response prompts, whereby friends and boyfriend provided fewer verbal prompts as the week progressed during treatment period. Next, stimulus fading was also used in the second treatment period for environmental prompts, whereby on the first day, removal of alarm clock would be used and for subsequent days, one post its would be removed from either the mirror, computer or class file until the last day of treatment. Results The baseline and treatment data was collected for a period of four weeks and intervention was applied during treatment 1 and treatment 2. Figure 1: Studying behaviour in baseline and treatment weeks. Figure 1 shows that during the first baseline, studying behaviour did not occur at all for the first two days, one hour for the third, again none on the fourth and two hours on the fifth day. Hence, the average studying hours for the first baseline week is 0. 4 hours or 24 minutes. Furthermore, this could be clearly seen in the structured diary attached for the first baseline (Appendix B). Next, intervention took place in the second week, whereby various strategies were used to increase studying behaviour. Results showed that studying behaviour had occurred for two hours for the first and second day, one hour for the third day, two hours for the fourth day, and none on the fifth day. This shows that studying behaviour had increased to an average of 1. 4 hours a day and that there was an increase of 50% from the initial baseline to the treatment period. Moreover, the self management project had returned to baseline on the third week and results showed that studying behaviour had occurred for 2. hours on the first day, one hour on the second, none on the third and fourth and two hours on the fifth day. Thus, the average studying behaviour was 1. 1 hours a day for the second baseline period. Although the average hours were less compared to the treatment period, however, there was definitely an increase compared to the first baseline period, whereby average hours were only 0. 4 hours. Next, intervention was again applied and the second treatment results showed that studying behaviour occurred for one hour on the first day, 2. hours on the second, two hours on the third, one hour on the fourth, and two hours on the fifth day. Hence, the average studying hours is approximately 1. 7 hours a day. Thus, this also shows that there is an increase of studying behaviour between the second baseline and second treatment period. Besides that, there is also a staggering increase from the initial baseline and second treatment period, that precedes to fluctuate in the second baseline, when intervention was removed. Discussion  The behaviour modification project to increase studying behaviour was definitely a success because the graphs showed an increase in hours of studying as compared to the baseline data, thus indicating that there us a functional relationship between the target behaviour and the procedure. Furthermore, it is clear that the token economy system was a contributor to the success of increasing studying behaviour because once token economy was removed in the second baseline; the target behaviour had decreased tremendously. In addition, the target behaviour had increased when the second intervention was applied in the fourth week. Moreover, the use of reinforcements and punishment also helped me to keep myself motivated and determined to achieve the weekly goal that was set. Besides that, the use of within stimulus fading helped me generalise my behaviour to the subsequent weeks ahead, hence I had gradually adjusted myself with getting used to having less and less prompts throughout the week. However, there were also some limitations in this project, whereby, the duration of treatment intervention is too short to allow the behaviour to fully adjust and be generalised without the use of prompts. In addition, self monitoring was used during observation of behaviour for the baseline data. Observer may not be trained enough to record her own behaviour, hence data may not be as reliable as compared to having an inter rater observation. Moreover, the implementation of reinforcement contingency was my housemate, and sometimes the reinforcements were given a day later because she is not around. This has affected the effectiveness of the token as a reinforcing consequence as some deliveries of the token did not occur immediately after the response occurred according to the expected schedule. Furthermore, due to the delay between the response and token, it could have also affected the connection strength of the behaviour. In conclusion, behaviour modification is definitely an effective treatment method to help increase, decrease or develop new behaviours and it is applicable to use in a variety of problematic behaviours.